Our Worldview Determines Our Response to the Coronavirus Pandemic

 

Stephen McDowell

The coronavirus pandemic is revealing much about the character and worldview of the American people, as well as mankind in general. Trials prove our faith; they show what is inside us (1 Pet. 1:6-7; James 1). Our response to calamities reveals who we are as individuals and the nature of the corporate man. It shows what we think, which reflects what we have been taught.

As this pandemic progresses, we can continue to learn from this world-changing event. I have written of some of these lessons previously.[1] From the first I have expressed concern that the draconian response of many rulers in the nations would in the long-run pose more harm than good. This is proving to be correct. But this is not unexpected because rulers are acting according to their view of life, which is generally man-centered and, hence, void of a biblical understanding.

In the big picture I think the devil has pulled a fast one on mankind. He has pulled the wool over the eyes of the world. His goal is to kill, steal, and destroy. He has used his minions most effectively in advancing his nefarious purpose. It is not that he has possessed these minions and is pulling their strings to do his bidding. He hasn’t needed to. They are just acting upon their pre-suppositional world and life view, which is rooted in their religious faith (and secular humanism is a faith).

Having said that Satan has executed a great blow against mankind does not discount that God has allowed (or even perhaps authored) this for His ultimate purposes. Satan only operates under the sovereignty of God (Job 1:12; 2:6; Luke 22:31; 2 Cor. 12:7). Therefore, we must continually ask God what we can learn and what we can do in response to the coronavirus pandemic. And God is most certainly doing many things in individual lives as well as history at large through this pandemic.[2]

But it is certain Satan and his minions are at work. Who are these minions and how have they been involved in mankind’s destruction?

The foremost minions are the communist Chinese leaders. The coronavirus originated in China, perhaps in live meat markets or in their labs through biological experiments. Whether intentional or accidental (and I will give them the benefit of the doubt of it being accidental), when the coronavirus got out, they certainly lied and covered up its existence and danger, to their own citizens and to the world at large. Furthermore, they allowed people to carry this all over the world, unleashing death and fear. They have attempted to cover-up their part in this and have also tried to benefit financially by selling medical supplies that the world is demanding.

In all this they have been acting upon their philosophy of life. They lie and act deceitfully with the goal of inflicting pain and destroying their enemies, especially the free nation of America, which they see as their greatest enemy.

Liberal leftists are also unwitting minions helping to advance Satan’s oppression of mankind. Concerning the current pandemic, they are responding as they do in all situations, with the belief that they are the masters of their own fate. They are the savior, not just of their own lives, but all of mankind. They are the enlightened ones who know what is best for everyone.

They implement their utopian policies through big government, attempting to mitigate the pandemic through micromanaging everything including: deciding what jobs are essential (churches are forbidden, but abortion chambers, liquor stores, and pot shops are fine), who and how many people can gather together, whether beaches and parks can open, decreeing you can’t mow your lawn, deciding where people can and cannot go, jailing some business owners who seek to earn money to feed their kids; all the while, they enlist citizens to report neighbors who violate their dictatorial policies.

At the same time they are destroying people’s businesses and livelihoods, they are creating money (stealing it from citizens, now and in the future) to pay off the people who they claim to be helping. Their action treats people as if they are slaves, forbidding people to choose how they should live, and not believing individuals know what is best for their health and well-being.

Big government always enslaves. The action of the liberals reveals they are the masters of the government plantation. They believe individuals cannot be trusted to know what is best for their health and safety. Only they – the all-knowing ones — can make these decisions. And they will enforce them for your own good.

And this is done in the name of saving lives, of being compassionate. Yet, these same people have disregarded the most vulnerable – the unborn – for decades, tossing aside millions of lives as if they were rubbish.

They claim they are following the advice of experts. We are only following the science, they say. Everyone else cannot be trusted (and their voices must be shut down). But these experts’ models have proven to be wrong. And most of the experts they consult are wrong about the most fundamental issues: they deny life in the womb, they deny the biblical and historical understanding of the family, and they deny basic morality. If they cannot discern these basic truths of life, we should be very wary of trusting them in other matters.

Liberals issue oppressive governmental decrees, while many of them at the same time violate their own directives: Like the mayor of Chicago who shut hair salons but got her own haircut, and the mayor of New York City who walked in the park while mandating everyone else stay at home, and the California congressman who pushed the shut-down of beaches but was seen at the beach himself. Their view is that as government elites, rules don’t apply to them, only to the common peons they oversee.

The restrictive and unconstitutional actions of liberal civil leaders during this pandemic reveals how easily many Americans will go along with big government stealing their rights and liberties. This, along with the great blow to the economy, will have dangerous long-term effects.

It is not surprising that the communist Chinese and the leftist liberals have acted in accordance with their man-is-savior, big government worldview. It is more surprising that some conservatives who believe in individual liberties and small government have responded with a heavy hand.

Many conservatives have tried to respond by trusting people to act responsibly for their and others well-being. Some have been consistent from the beginning and kept the government’s actions to a minimum (a half dozen or so states, all governed by conservatives, did not close). But some conservatives acted in excess, quarantining everyone and not just the infected.[3] Why? Some were influenced by the unknown, some responded to doomsday scenarios presented by flawed models, some listened too intently to only some experts and did not receive a wide range of opinions. And others are big government in their hearts and went along with the ideology that big government knows best.

All in all, people have responded to this destructive pestilence in accordance with their worldview. Your worldview determines how you think and act. No surprise here. This is true for the societal response, but is also true for the individual response. Our worldview will also determine how we act in the coming months and years as we try to restore life to normal.[4]

Many people are very fearful of this virus. What they really fear is death. This pandemic has made death much more of a reality to them. For the communists, secularists, liberals, and conservatives who have no faith in the afterlife, fear motivates many of them. To the biblical Christian who knows we have eternal life through Christ, there is no fear. We can pursue life in a responsible but active way, understanding that this virus is a real threat, as are many other things in this fallen world, but we are not to live in fear as we pursue our God-given mission to bring His Kingdom to earth as it is in heaven.

A person’s worldview determines his actions (Prov. 23:7). Those who teach us, shape what we think and how we act. This was true before the pandemic. But the pandemic has magnified the consequences of the importance of these biblical ideas. Learning and obeying the principles of the Bible has never been more important. The coronavirus pandemic is reinforcing one of the most taught ideas in the Bible: if we obey Him and His word we will be blessed, things will go well for us, personally and in society; but if we disobey Him we will have great troubles and live in much fear. Today is a good time to choose to obey the Lord, to choose life that comes from obedience to Him.

 

[1] See Stephen McDowell, “Coronavirus and the Providence of God:”  https://providencefoundation.com/coronavirus-and-the-providence-of-god-what-can-we-learn-from-this-pandemic/  and “The Coronavirus Outbreak, What is Going On?” https://providencefoundation.com/the-corona-virus-outbreak-what-is-going-on/

[2] God often uses pestilence, disease, and calamities to advance His purposes. (see my article “Coronavirus and the Providence of God” for Scriptures on this.) For some general thoughts on what God is doing in this pandemic see, John Piper, Coronavirus and Christ, Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway, 2020.

[3] Some argue that since asymptomatic people can spread the coronavirus, it is impossible to quarantine all those who are infected. Hence, we must quarantine everyone. But violating biblical principles of quarantine (and work) is not the best solution. We don’t have to violate some biblical principles to adhere to others. We can close nursing homes and those housing the most vulnerable, and perhaps shut down certain areas with a high concentration of infections, but we should seek other methods of implementing quarantine without destroying lives. The long-term effects of shutting down the economy throughout the entire nation (where half the counties in the U.S. have had no deaths) has and will kill many more than the virus itself. People have died from missed surgeries. People are starving in many nations and the effects will only get worse. Fear and despair have ruined many lives. And there are many other destructive consequences occurring due to the draconian governmental actions.

[4] One thing, no doubt, that God is doing is seeking to let us know that much of what is (and was) part of our normal life is not how God intends us to live. He wants us to get our lives, personal and national, aligned to what He says is normal in the Bible.

Stephen McDowell

The Corona Virus Outbreak? What is going on?

Regarding the corona virus outbreak, has the world gone mad responding to an irresponsible media-induced, irrational fear, or are they responding in the great wisdom of man and in so doing taking action that will save themselves from devastating pestilence, or are they taking the biblical steps necessary to combat the challenge that comes from living in this fallen world?

Two brief thoughts:

1. I am glad the world is following biblical medical principles of cleanliness, sanitation, and quarantine.

For most of history, man ignored these and suffered greatly through many diseases, pestilences, and afflictions. These have devastated mankind many times, none as bad as the bubonic plague in the mid-14th century which killed one-third to one-half of Europe (tens of millions of people).

It was a Christian doctor, Joseph Lister, who discovered why God presented these principles thousands of years before. He discovered that germs cause sickness and infection, and then found a way to kill these germs, and consequently, led the way for saving millions upon millions of lives. You can read his story here:

https://providencefoundation.com/transforming-medicine-and-business/

With that being said, something is not right about the extreme response of many governments.

2. I am concerned that the long-term unintended consequences of the present draconian actions – fueled by exaggerated fear-based media reporting – will likely result in more deaths and hardships by disrupting (and destroying) economies throughout the world.

If personal and national economies are disrupted or ruined, millions of people will directly or indirectly die or face great hardship over time – from the poor who are dependent upon the generous help of others, to the inability of many needy to have access to capital necessary to empower them to meet their needs and advance, to the loss of current income by many temporarily forced out of work, to many older folks whose retirement investments (that are being hit hard with the falling stock market and disruption of the economy) are needed to meet their basic needs, to the disruption of the exchange of good and services that are vital to many people, to the lack that will impact many. For now, it is very difficult to see and measure these long-term negative effects.

Added to this is the grave consequences of big government assuming more control over the lives of people. The potential loss of liberty and economic well-being is immeasurable. At this time, much action that some governments have taken is far beyond what is merited by the circumstances.

Why are the nations responding this way with this particular virus? Why did they not take similar action with recent previous new viruses? Or with the various strands of flu that kill and affect exponentially more people every year? The answer is related to these questions.

What caused this outbreak? And what is governing the response? It could be a number of things. Pestilence is a normal part of the fallen world; the devil is likely involved as he seeks to kill, steal, and destroy; sinful man brings on troubles through disobedience; and secular man uses many opportunities to advance his own purposes. In addition, God Himself often uses such things to accomplish his purposes. Any or all of these can be factors, and precise answers are not currently clear.

But some of the steps we can take are clear.

Pray with authority. God through Christ has given us authority over sickness and disease. We can repent of our sins, personal and corporate, and exercise the authority Jesus gave the church. President Trump’s call for pray is a good step. See his proclamation here:

https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/proclamation-national-day-prayer-americans-affected-coronavirus-pandemic-national-response-efforts/

Ask for godly wisdom to rightly apply His biblical medical principles for this pestilence. Especially pray for wisdom for our civil leaders to act decisively, yet with great restraint for the least long-term negative effect on the economy.

Do not respond in fear or get caught up in the fear-stoked media coverage. See this in light of all the historic pestilences and diseases, where this is certainly much less dangerous than many other outbreaks.

We should respond in the confident faith we have in Christ, where His work and truth have overcome Satan and the negative effects of sin in the world.

Who is at fault, and can we do anything to prevent future murders?

By Stephen McDowell

 

Murder is an evil act which must be condemned and dealt with in a proper way to diminish future murders and create a culture of life. Murder has existed since the fall of mankind, and has waxed and waned in various societies based upon their faith and worldview.

The prevalence of murder in America has increased in recent times, especially since the early 1960s. At that time God and His Word were publicly rejected and extirpated from government schools, although Christian ideas and morals had been under assault long before.

Our public schools have taught for generations that man is an accident of nature, and that he is an amoral being with no more value than animals. We should, therefore, not be surprised when men act like animals and treat others with little regard. We have kicked God and His moral standards out of our schools, and then we bemoan the consequences of people acting upon the relativistic ideology engrained in them. We violate God’s laws of justice and reject His criminal penalties and wonder why we have a growing culture of crime.

Who is to blame for the recent shootings and mass murders?

Regarding the recent shooting in the Pittsburgh synagogue, some people have attempted to blame President Trump. However, it is not the rhetoric from the President that caused this. Rather, in a general sense, it is the rhetoric from the school rooms. Such crimes have increased because we have failed to teach the nature of fallen man and the righteous standards of the Creator. Sinners will act like sinners. We must restrain the fallen nature of man by teaching God’s moral standards, and by teaching and executing the consequences for violating those standards.

The Cause of Murder and Crime

To properly deal with murderous and criminal actions in society, we must first understand what causes such behavior. The Bible teaches that violence and crime are caused by evil in men’s hearts.

Then the Lord saw that the wickedness of man was great on the earth, and that every intent of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually…. Now the earth was corrupt in the sight of God, and the earth was filled with violence. (Gen. 6:5, 11)

The fall of man brought about corruption in the heart of man, which manifested itself externally with violence and murder. God established civil government in the earth as the means of restraining evil doers and protecting law-abiding citizens (Gen. 9:6; Rom. 13:1-7; 1 Pet. 2:13-14). It was given the use of the sword to enforce its authority to protect the life, liberty, and property of the people.

Why Does Crime Flourish?

If civil government does not fulfill its duty to restrain criminals in accordance with Biblical guidelines then crime will flourish. Ecclesiastes 8:11 says, “Because the sentence against an evil deed is not executed quickly, therefore the hearts of the sons of men among them are given fully to do evil” (Eccl. 8:11). Swift execution of God’s justice is necessary to keep a culture of crime from growing in a nation.

Combating Crime

What can individuals and governments do to combat crime? Understanding that sin and evil in men’s heart is the cause of crime reveals that preaching the Gospel and seeing individuals converted to Christ is the only way to ultimately reduce crime in a nation. Only God through the atoning work of Christ can change man’s heart and give him a new nature, one that seeks to obey God and live in conformity to His law. God not only gives man a new heart, but He empowers him with His Holy Spirit to enable him to follow His blueprint for all of life. This is why crime diminishes when Christianity comes to a community. Where Christian revivals have occurred in history, courts and jails have become empty and police officers have had little to do.

Since men are fallen and sinful, crime will never be completed eliminated from this world, therefore, civil government has a vital role in bringing tranquility and quietness to this life (1 Tim. 2:2). The Bible says, “When a ruler executes judgment, he scatters away all evil” (Prov. 20:8) and “The king gives stability to the land by justice” (Prov. 29:4). Thus, civil leaders should administer God’s justice in a timely fashion (while taking into account the provisions to protect people from false charges), protect law-abiding citizens, and punish criminals in accordance with Biblical guidelines.

Biblical Means of Dealing with Crime

What is crime and how should a society deal with it?

Crime is rooted in the sinful nature of man. Sin is acting contrary to God’s standard as revealed in His Law-Word. Crime is unlawful behavior (as delineated by God in His Word) that usually threatens the life, liberty, or property of others, either directly (such as robbery or murder) or indirectly (such as treason). There is criminal activity that potentially only affects one’s own person, such as drug use. Such activity is still an assault on life (and our lives are not our own since God who created us ultimately owns us; we are merely stewards of our bodies).[1]

Crime comes under the jurisdiction of the state or civil government. While all crimes (as defined by God, but not necessarily the state) are sins, all sins are not crimes punishable by civil authorities. Many sins (violation of God’s Law-Word) are outside the jurisdiction of the state; some sins are to be dealt with by the family, some by the church, and many by God Himself. It is very important that civil leaders understand the distinction of crime and sin, the source of crime, and how to administer God’s justice when crime is committed.

Civil governments throughout history have declared many actions to be criminal that according to God are not criminal at all, including reading the Bible and worshiping God according to the dictates of one’s own conscience. Where laws exist that are contrary to God’s higher law, it is the duty of Christians to seek to change these. Sometimes men have criminalized bad behavior, with the goal of limiting behavior that was not criminal according to God, but rather was sinful, or potentially sinful. The Eighteen Amendment to the United States Constitution is one such example. This well-intended but ill-conceived prohibition amendment, adopted in 1919, caused more problems than it attempted to solve and was eventually repealed in 1933.[2]

Some use prohibition to proclaim we cannot legislate morality, nor should we try to legislate morality. However, every law is a legislation of someone’s morality. Murder and theft are moral issues. Enacting laws against these actions is a legislation of morality. The important question is, “whose morality should we legislate?” There are really only two answers: either’s God’s morality (which He reveals in His Word, the Bible) or man’s. While all law legislates morality, it is very important to understand that man cannot legislate good. Laws cannot change the heart of man; they cannot elevate men above the level of their faith and morality.

As mentioned earlier, a society must understand the source of crime before they can effectively deal with crime. The Bible clearly states that wickedness and sin in the heart of man is the source of crime (Gen. 6:5, 11). As a result of man’s sin – that is, disobedience to God – evil entered his heart. What was in the heart of man manifested itself in his actions (the world was filled with violence). Recognizing the true nature of man – he is a sinful, fallen being in need of a savior – is the beginning place for a society to correctly deal with crime. Both preventative and corrective measures must be taken.

Preventative — Teach Truth and Biblical Morality

Since crime is a result of evil in the heart of man, transformation of the heart is the ultimate preventative measure, and since only God can change a heart, preaching the Gospel is the best thing we can do to lower crime. Since only the true and living God – the God of the Bible – can change a heart, nations where Christianity has the greatest influence have the greatest weapon to reduce crime.

Following transformation is the need to teach God’s standards of conduct. These serve as the plumb line for how we should live. While Christians are empowered by the Holy Spirit to help them live right, these standards impact non-Christians also. Thus, we must lift up God’s standards, which are summarized in the Ten Commandments, within our nation and teach them to everyone. We must teach the Bible not only in churches but also in schools and everywhere ideas are presented. The Founders of America understood and did this very thing.

Signer of the Constitution, James McHenry, said:

The Holy Scriptures … can alone secure to society, order and peace, and to our courts of justice and constitutions of government, purity, stability, and usefulness. In vain, without the Bible, we increase penal laws and draw entrenchments around our institutions.[3]

Benjamin Rush, Signer of the Declaration and father of American medicine, wrote:

In contemplating the political institutions of the United States, I lament that we waste so much time and money in punishing crimes and take so little pains to prevent them. We profess to be republicans, and yet we neglect the only means of establishing and perpetuating our republican forms of government, that is, the universal education of our youth in the principles of christianity by the means of the bible. For this Divine book, above all others, favors that equality among mankind, that respect for just laws, and those sober and frugal virtues, which constitute the soul of republicanism.[4]

Imparting the principles of the Ten Commandments to all Americans is just what is needed to diminish murders and to most effectively deal with the 2.2 million criminals in jail today.

Corrective — Biblical Means of Punishment

It is better to prevent crime than to attempt to correct the effects of crime after it is committed. If a crime is committed, the Bible provides the best means of how to deal with it.

The emphasis of God’s law in dealing with criminal acts is restitution to the victim and restoration of Godly order. The Roman idea of punishing the criminal is what is predominant in our criminal system today. The penalties in Biblical law for stealing have the goal of establishing Godly order, of cleansing and healing man to live in God’s order.

Remember that all sins are not crimes, thus if God’s law is violated, it should be handled by the appropriate jurisdiction and with an appropriate penalty. We should discern if it is the responsibility of the family, church, or state (or God Himself) to administer God’s justice. In addition, when executing the penalty we should remember God’s mercy and His justice. A thorough knowledge of God’s Word (the Bible) is necessary for this.

In brief, here are the biblical penalties for criminal behavior (that is, violating Biblical civil law) as given to the Hebrew Republic:

1. Restitution for theft (Ex. 22:1 ff). Work (via servitude) to make restitution for those unable to pay.
2. Corporal punishment and/or fines for minor offenses (Lev. 19:14; Dt. 22:13-21; Num. 5:5-10; Lev. 5:14-16; Lev. 6:1-7). For sins of negligence and inadvertence (Num. 5:5-10; Lev. 5:14-16) and minor offenses of a deliberate nature involving property (Lev. 6:1-7), the principal plus 20% was to be restored.
3. Death for serious offenses against life or incorrigibility (Ex. 21:12-16; Ex. 22:19-27; Lev. 20:10-21; Dt. 21:18-21).
4. City of refuge for accidental death (Num. 35; Dt. 19:1-13).

 

God’s punishment for willful murder is the death penalty. This is clearly taught in the Old Testament and is affirmed in the New Testament. To learn biblical principles of capital punishment (including addressing the arguments of those opposed to the death penalty) and for an elaboration of each of the penalties mentioned above, order Crime and Punishment: A Biblical Perspective.

Goal of Restitution and of Restoration of Godly Order

The ultimate goal of God’s penalties for crime is the establishment of His Kingdom (His righteousness, peace, and joy) in the earth. God’s means of dealing with criminals brings restitution to the victim and restoration of Godly order. When a thief has to make restitution he is growing in the character and self-government necessary for citizens to possess for a free and just society. Removing evil men through capital punishment brings more peace and order to a nation. The biblical goal in dealing with criminals is to extend God’s Kingdom in the earth, personally and in society at large.

Swift execution of justice, restitution, penalties commensurate with the crime, and capital punishment will bring Godly order. God’s Kingdom should be our mind at all phases. Even if capital punishment applies in a sentence of a criminal, judges should be looking to establish His Kingdom. Jesus can forgive the sins of criminals and they can be born into His Kingdom, but they still must pay for their civil crimes. Good judges are those who execute God’s laws justly and swiftly, always having God’s Kingdom in mind. Such was Thomas McKean.

Thomas McKean was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, one of the authors of the constitutions of Pennsylvania and Delaware, a governor of each of these states, a legal authority (writing Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States of America, 1792), and a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. As Chief Justice he presided over a trial where John Roberts was sentenced to death for treason. After delivering the sentence Chief Justice McKean gave this advice to Roberts:

You will probably have but a short time to live. Before you launch into eternity, it behooves you to improve the time that may be allowed you in this world: it behooves you most seriously to reflect upon your past conduct; to repent of your evil deeds; to be incessant in prayers to the great and merciful God to forgive your manifold transgressions and sins; to teach you to rely upon the merit and passion of a dear Redeemer, and thereby to avoid those regions of sorrow—those doleful shades where peace and rest can never dwell, where even hope cannot enter. It behooves you to seek the [fellowship], advice, and prayers of pious and good men; to be [persistent] at the Throne of Grace, and to learn the way that leadeth to happiness. May you, reflecting upon these things, and pursuing the will of the great Father of light and life, be received into [the] company and society of angels and archangels and the spirits of just men made perfect; and may you be qualified to enter into the joys of Heaven—joys unspeakable and full of glory![5]

We need a criminal justice system and judges like this today, where there are swift and fair trials, an upholding of Godly standards, and a presentation of God’s Kingdom and mercy to the end.

What Can We Do?

Our current justice system is far from the biblical model. It needs much transformation. Each of us can take part in changing it. Here are four things we can do:

1. Preach the Gospel and see individuals converted.
2. Build self-government and Christian character in yourself and those around you.
3. Teach God’s precepts throughout society, and work to have them taught in our schools.
4. Work to establish Godly leaders and judges who will implement God’s means of dealing with law-breakers (and who will restrain from being thieves themselves).

Murder will never end until the return of Christ and the end of this age. But we can diminish it and other criminal activity by implementing God’s preventative and corrective measures for dealing with crime. In so doing we will be helping to restore earth to God’s original order where life is highly honored and secure.

 

To learn more, order Crime and Punishment: A Biblical Perspective.

 

 

[1] Libertarians argue that individuals should be free to take whatever drugs or be involved in whatever activities they want to as long as they are not harming the life, liberty, or property of anyone else, but, since we belong to God and must seek to preserve our own bodies, some activities that threaten our lives can be criminalized. In addition, when we destroy our own lives, the lives, liberty, and/or property of others are almost always assaulted as well. Wisdom is needed to determine what drugs should be considered illegal because an excess of almost anything can kill us, including eating food. However, good food is essential for life, while many drugs have no benefit and only bring destruction.

[2] Prohibition was passed with the laudable goal of reducing drunkenness and its bad effects.  Consuming alcohol is not sinful in itself, though excess consumption is a sin, as the Bible repeatedly warns against this. Drunkenness can lead to criminal behavior and it would be legitimate for governments to declare some related behavior as criminal, such as drunk driving. The ultimate solution to drunkenness is transformation of the heart and mind of men by the power and truth of God.

[3] Bernard C. Steiner, One Hundred and Ten Years of Bible Society Work in Maryland, Baltimore: Maryland Bible Society, 1921, p. 14.

[4] Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical, Philadelphia: printed by Thomas and William Bradford, 1806, p. 113.

[5] William B. Reed, Life and Correspondence of Joseph Reed, Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1847, pp. 36-37.

 

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